non modernist theories of nationalism

[1] He thus argued that nationalism was highly compatible with industrialisation and served the purpose of replacing the ideological void left by both the disappearance of the prior agrarian society culture and the political and economical system of feudalism, which it legitimised. KEYWORDS: Keywords:Nationalism Realism Constructivism Political Theory Marxism. Print. JSTOR. [1][2] His theory focused on the political and cultural aspects of that transition. 14 May 2015. London: Pluto, 2010. However, upon further examination, it becomes clear that this recent rise of Scottish nationalism is merely the latest spike of nationalism that has existed as a continuum in Scotland since at least the thirteenth century. Finally, I examine how Darwinian social evolutionary theory can help fruitfully bring the ethno‐symbolic and modernist perspectives together. There is not a specific date belonging to this theory as the key features often listed as the cause of modernity … In a style accessible to the student and the general reader he traces the changing view of this hotly discussed topic within the current political, cultural and socioeconomic arena. In political context, Hobsbawm formulated his theories directly before and during the Cold War and was a part of the liberal and constructivist wave of thought regarding nations. Regionally specific theories of nationalism, both from modernist and modernization approaches, may play a key part in building an integrated theory by serving as an intermediary between universalist theorising and case studies. Acknowledgements. O'Leary refers to the theory as "the best-known modernist explanatory theory of nationalism". Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1460, Finkel, Matt. The conception of the nation has shifted dramatically, from the proto-jingoist conservatism of the ‘primordial nation’ of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Johann Gottfried Herder and the German nationalist school of thought they represent to the constructivist ‘imagined community’ of Benedict Anderson and the ‘congruence principle’ of Ernest Gellner to the militant anti-nationalism of Thongchai Winichakul’s notion of the artificed ‘geo-body’ and the Marxist ‘bottom-up’ nation of Eric Hobsbawm. The form of extended kinship that stemmed from the family was the nucleus around which the national community was formed. Theories of Nationalism A Critical Introduction. Hobsbawm worked under the cloud of “a lesser McCarthyism” existing in the United Kingdom during the Cold War and his Marxist theories were considered radical enough to preclude him from receiving offers of university positions.14. He states that, “A mere category of persons (say, occupants of a given territory, or speakers of a given language, for example) becomes a nation if and when the members of the category firmly recognize certain mutual rights and duties to each other in virtue of their shared membership of it. Personal experiences with nationalist and primordialist forces served to further push scholars to the constructivist camp. Hobsbawm attempted to rework methodological practices of constructivist academics by viewing nationhood from the bottom-up and redefining the nation as a concept lacking in uniformity throughout the classes. "The Nationalism Project: Homepage." The premise of the modernist theory is that nations have occurred as a natural result of modernity. Independent Digital News and Media, n.d. The most common form of theories on nations and nationalism are based around modernity. As a student, Thongchai was imprisoned by Thai nationalist forces in a paramilitary assault on a student protest.10 His conception of the nation as a result is actually more anti-primordialist than traditional constructivism as it has the added element of an artificed an unreal territory and geography. It is a fundamentally new feature of modern life since states in previous times were not organised on nationalist lines. An Examination of Nationalism, Gender, and Membership in the Nation, Realism and Arab Nationalism: An Uneasy Partnership, Pragmatic Nationalism and Confucianism: The New Ideology of the CCP, Fascism: A Political Ideology of the Past, Has the U.S. Constitution Reached its Expiration Date? Such critiques created new theories of nationalism such as sociobiological and cultural primordialism, neo-perennialism, the post-modernist understanding of nationalism and ethno-symbolism. Ideology is “an inherently subjective collection of ideas, or concepts, about how power should be, or is, ordered within society” [3]. Web. It concludes that nationalism belonged to a broader modernist discourse that thoroughly accompanied the expansion of modernity. Author: Umut Özkirimli Publisher: Macmillan Education UK ... trying to come to grips with it as it soon became clear that nationalism was not simply a temporary stage in the historical evolution of human societies. It is a shifting phenomenon and the result of social thought. These four scholars and contributors to the constructivist school of thought on the conception of the nation were influenced by a number of social, political, and historiographical factors that affected their respective contributions to the academic field. About The Journal | Submissions These nations and imagined communities are sovereign because the concept was born when Enlightenment destroyed thoughts of divinely-ordained legitimacy and hierarchy.2 These nations are defined as a community because the nation is conceived as a deep fraternity between people and the nation is based on this fraternity, not the shared characteristics that may have created this fraternity in the first place. A part of the massive Western constructivist machine that was building momentum during the decades in which Gellner first published, he was disabused of any primordialist sentiments he may have felt towards his home country of Czechoslovakia by the violent and anti-Semitic takeover of communism. His skepticism of the realness of the nation does not undermine the validity of or need for the nation as a construct. Some Chinese intellectuals, like Lu Xun, attacked Confucianism believing it to be one of the sources of China’s failure to modernize... Fascism cannot adapt to, and exist under, certain prominent, contemporary conditions. Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines. While Gellner is at odds with the idea of the pre-existing nations of the primordial school of thought, his theories are in no way wholly agreeable to traditional constructivist thought regarding nationalism. It means the general diffusion of a school-mediated, academy supervised idiom, codified for the requirements of a reasonably precise bureaucratic and technological communication. Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. [5], For Gellner, nationalism was a sociological condition[5] and a likely but not guaranteed (he noted exceptions in multilingual states like Switzerland, Belgium and Canada[2]) result of modernisation, the transition from agrarian to industrial society. His Marxist bottom-up view of the nation portrays the nation and nationalism as lacking uniformity in society and being susceptible to change. Theorists of this ilk are referred to as using modernist or developmentalist approaches. Revision:Ernest gellners modernist theory of nationalism Gellner defines nationalism as " a political principle which holds that that political and the national unit should be congruent ". N.p., n.d. This research paper investigates the impact that the rhetoric of a populist conservative ethnic entrepreneur can have on ethnic conflict by analyzing the tweets of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Despite its strong influence during the last centuries, it has remained long neglected by academia (Hutchinson & Smith 1994: 3). Mgab. Modernist Theory of Nationalism as can be seen with the reestablishment of a Scottish Parliament in 1997. Web. Primordialists and ethnosymbolists have advanced their own theories of nationalism, but most contemporary IR scholars favor the “modernist” paradigm. 14 May 2015. The premise of the modernist theory is that nations have occurred as a natural result of modernity. My most sincere thanks to my colleague John K. Walton (University of the Basque Country) for his invaluable suggestions and comments in drafting the final text. 1/1 . The study of nationhood through the lens of territory is vital in explaining the formation of the nation through political geography as the concept of nation cannot be separated from that of sovereignty and the value of territory. They lack a modern self-sustainable economy, have divided authorities, and use multiple languages resulting in many groups being unable to communicate with each other. Benedict Anderson changed the way the debate between primordialism and constructivism was framed by introducing his three paradoxes of nation defining and then navigating those paradoxes with his notion of an imagined, limited, and sovereign community. Save Citation »  (Works with EndNote, ProCite, & Reference Manager), Finkel, M. (2016). The Nationalism Project: Homepage. He claims that nationalism came into its own in the nineteenth century at the same time that liberal political economic theories of Adam Smith and others were conceptualizing individuals, firms and markets as the fundamental components of economic growth, not nations or states (1992). Gellner also states that nations are not formed through ideology or proto-jingoism, but through its necessity for the existence of a modern and industrialized society. Authors: Philip Gorski. Representing the work of students from hundreds of institutions around the globe, Inquiries Journal's large database of academic articles is completely free. Over the years, the emergence of right-wing... China’s rise as a global power has major implications for the future of free speech and media censorship both within and outside the People’s Republic. N.p., n.d. He was heavily influenced by the social constructivist movement during the spread of socialism and its subsequent collapse and his work must be viewed in this political context. The emergence of social media platforms into American life has remarkably altered the political communication landscape. Theorists of this ilk are referred to as using modernist or developmentalist approaches. He listed three… [5] He saw the history of humanity culminating in the discovery of modernity, nationalism being a key functional element. Hobsbawm believes that, nations are fundamentally “situated at the point of intersection of politics, technology and social transformation.” 13 They only exist within the context of social and economic development and evolve because of this development and the mass standardization of practices, nations are not a pre-existing bond between a people group. Eriksen notes that "nobody contests Ernest Gellner's central place in the research on nationalism over the last few decades". Anderson theorised within the context of a dominant constructivist narrative on the topic of nationalism and with an academic focus on Southeast Asia and Indonesia in particular. Thongchai’s discourse on the falseness of both the nation and its territory exists in a blatantly anti-nationalist and anti-jingoist historical context. He views the nation as a changing, evolving, modern construct that is brought into being by nationalism, and not the other way around. London: Verso, 1991. Benedict Anderson, one of the foremost proponents of the constructivist view of nationalism, defines the nation as a fabrication, a bond between people that did not actually exist prior to its own recognition. Modernity is used to base around theories of nations and nationalism. Ernest Gellner’s Nations and Nationalism: A Book Critique. However, it is necessary to evaluate a larger literature beyond the modernist corpus in order to tackle questions such as whether modern nations are more conflict-prone than their more aged ethnic counterparts, or whether structural … Projects: Theories of Nationalism; Nationalism and democracy; Climate change, cultural homogenization and the nation-state ; Authors: Daniele Conversi. Theories of Nationalism: A Brief Comparison of Realist and Constructivist Ideas of the Nation. Modernist approaches are what they are referred to by theorists. [5] However, as modernization spread around the world, it did so slowly, and in numerous places, cultural elites were able to resist cultural assimilation and defend their own culture and language successfully. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation. Print. Nationalism is defined by Merriam-Webster’s dictionary as, “loyalty and devotion to a nation; The relationship between realism and nationalism is not clearly articulated in international relations literature. Industry and print language played an important role, which would make it easy for Anderson to fall into the trap of his own paradox of national definition, the existence of formal universality among all nations versus the uniqueness of each nation’s manifestation. Constructivism is a blanketed philosophy encompassing all scholarly thought on nationalism derived from the premise that the nation is not mythical nor is it a pre-existing, God-given bond between men. Available: http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1460. Ernest Gellner’s is the best-known modernist explanatory theory of nationalism. [1][2] Gellner discussed nationalism in a number of works, starting with Thought and Change (1964), and he most notably developed it in Nations and Nationalism (1983). Elliott, Gregory. Theories of Nationalism: A Brief Comparison of Realist and Constructivist Ideas of the Nation. N.p., n.d. In the 116th United States Congress, women hold 23.2% of House seats and 25% of Senate seats. To Gellner, homogenization of culture is a societal necessity, not a calculated power grab. The nation is not natural or pre-existing, but it is necessary for uniting state with culture. Gellner stipulates that nationalism is a completely necessary mechanism in the process of modernization because he believes that industrialism requires that social and political boundaries become congruent. The primordial conception of a mythologized nation as something inherent in a people group is absurd. "Thongchai Winichakul." Studies show that political parties have in fact become more divided ideologically than ever, and more Americans that belong to one... http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1460, Navigating the Leftist Spectrum in Argentina: An Economic Classification of the Kirchner Era, Who Makes a Nation? Confucianism’s influence declined throughout the 19th century coinciding with the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. In order to discuss the difficulties of defining nationalism it is essential we understand what ideology is. He states that, “It is an imagined community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign”1. This article takes issue with the modernist position. It fails to take into account either the role of war and the military in fostering both cultural homogenisation and nationalism or the relationship between, This page was last edited on 21 November 2020, at 14:04. Modernist theorists note that this is only possible in modern societies, while traditional societies typically lack the prerequisites for nationalism. Hobsbawm’s special brand of Marxist-constructivist thought precludes the existence of objective nationalism or a nationalist historian, as nationalist thought is fundamentally unsound. ISSN: 2153-5760. 10 | pg. The Independent. These borders define what is of the nation and what is not and identifies the outermost limits of national identity. It is a construct, a fabricated entity whose existence is a result of its own recognition and not any ethnic, racial, or ideological commonality existing in a people group. Web. Inquiries Journal 8.10 (2016). modernist theories had statistically significant results, which do not always support the corresponding hypotheses. The Question of why/whether the concepts of nation and nationalism are modern phenomena in relation with the birth and development of both nation and nationalism. Frequently considered to be the dominant theory employed by modern historians in regards to the study of nationalism, the modernist theory dictates that nations require the paradigms of modern society in order to exist (Smith, 1998). Political polarization in the United States has been one of the main issues at the forefront of American politics. Primordialism assumes that group identity is a given. The theory of multiple modernities does not deal with nationalism per se but nationalism can be seen as one of cultural programmes, a modern form of human self-reflexivity with the nation at the centre of societal self-understanding (Ichijo 2013). Hobsbawm states that, in order to understand the nation, it must be analyzed from a bottom-up perspective. [1] O'Leary refers to the theory as "the best-known modernist explanatory theory of nationalism". Ernest Gellner put forth the idea that the nation is only a socially conceived “construct,” an artificially created entity with the possibility of continued existence contingent upon the continuation of the perpetuation of the concept by the nation’s elites.4 He believes that nations and nationalism are not somehow revealed by historical events, but rather that they are fabricated concepts. [5] Modernity, by changes in political and economic system, is tied to the popularization of education, which, in turn, is tied to the unification of language. Walicki, Andrzej. This paper begins by defining fascism. One of the main and most important thinkers of modernism and nationalism was Ernest Gellner. 2016. A clear and definitive change in the conception of the ‘realness’ of the nation can be seen throughout the historiographical study of nationalism. 14 May 2015. Instead, as defined, assimilationism is suggested to fit Gellner’s theory of nationalism. This perspective reveals that national ideology at the top is not reflective of national ideology of the working class, that national identity can be secondary to other forms of self-identification, and that the conception of a nation can and does change, sometimes quite rapidly. Gellner's theory of nationalism was developed by Ernest Gellner over a number of publications from around the early 1960s to his 1995 death. The dominance of the modern constructivist school resulted in an importance academic liberal bias against the primordialist notion of the nation and nationhood. Influence. On one hand, realism and nationalism are viewed as contradictory forces, standing against one another as reason to emotion, reality to identity. His opinion is influenced by his chosen specialty and case study as well as by the existing constructivist sentiments at the time. Web. Theories of Nationalism The Israeli Experience as a Test Case Jonathan Spyer Abstract: The field of general theories of nationalism has been a subject of frequent reference for scholars of Israel. This article summarizes its expression and development before considering its strengths and weaknesses. Print. [2] His theory is modernist. One of the first scholars to address this academic shortcoming was Elie Kedourie, a British scholar of the Middle East, who offered a conservative challenging theory against nationalism in his thought-provokin… These academics have helped to grow the constructivist school of thought from blanketed liberal reactionism in response to rationalized jingoism to an expansion on the thinking surrounding what constitutes a nation, how a nation is formed, and what that means in the context of modern nation-states. It is their recognition of each other as fellows of this kind which turns them into a nation, and not the other shared attributes, whatever they might be, which separate that category from non- members.” 5. This comparison will result in establishing the main points of each theory in the form of testable hypotheses. With the modern events concerning nationalism in Scotland, it is worth asking how Scottish nationalism was formed. [1] In particular, he focused on the unifying and culturally homogenising roles of the educational systems, national labour markets and improved communication and mobility in the context of urbanisation. It is the establishment of an anonymous impersonal society, with mutually sustainable atomised individuals, held together above all by a shared culture of this kind, in place of the previous complex structure of local groups, sustained by folk cultures reproduced locally and idiosyncratically by the micro-groups themselves. Thongchai expanded the idea of artificiality as a component of the nation by applying it to what is arguably the most tangible aspect of the nation, its borders and territory, driving the debate even further away from the conservative primordial explanation. To prepare the framework for the empirical research, I will dedicate the first part of the article to the comparative analysis of modernist theories of nationalism. Anderson believes that the nation is imagined because members of this nation don’t know most of their compatriots but still have a communal image; it is built based on recognition of commonality, not the commonality itself. Eric Hobsbawm was a proponent of a distinctly Marxist, anti-primordial view of the nation. Benedict Anderson believes that both primordialist thinking and Marxist constructivist philosophy cannot endure in the face of the fundamental paradoxes of defining the nation, which he believes to be the objectivity of historical treatment versus subjective antiquity for nationalists and jingoists, the existence of formal universality among all nations versus the uniqueness of each nation’s manifestation, and the political power of a nation versus its philosophical poverty.3 For Anderson, primordialist thinking regarding the nation fails to stand up to the objectivity of historical treatment while Marxist thinking regarding the conception of the nation doesn’t take into account the philosophical poverty of the nation. Territoriality is a vital component in the creation of the collective ‘self’ of the nation and the geo-body is, in and of itself, just another construct artificially created through cartography and discourses of geographical representation.9. It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice. Terms of Use :: Privacy Policy :: Contact. Genovese, Eugene. In the immense field of scholarly work regarding defining nationhood, a raging debate exists between the conservative view of … "It is an imagined community—and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign". Winichakul, Thongchai. The constructivist school of thought is in no way a uniform reaction to the jingoist nationalism of primordialist thinkers. To Gellner, nationalism comes from the fabrication of recognition, not any shared pre-existing characteristics.This is in direct conflict with the pre-constructivist idea that nations already existed before their more tangible manifestation. Down the ballot, across state and local elected offices, women are underrepresented in their communities. It accounts poorly for national movements of, It fails to account for either nationalism in non-industrial society and resurgences of nationalism in. The uses to which the vari-ous theories have been put are manifold. Moreover, the views expressed here do not necessarily represent the views of Inquiries Journal or Student Pulse, its owners, staff, contributors, or affiliates. He states that, “Nations as a natural, God-given way of classifying men, as an inherent ... political destiny, are a myth; nationalism, which sometimes takes preexisting cultures and turns them into nations, sometimes invents them, and often obliterates pre-existing cultures: that is a reality.” 12. 14 May 2015. "Unlikely Reds Under the Bed." 8 No. He wrote that “any sufficiently large body of people whose members regard themselves as members of a 'nation', will be treated as such.” 11 This is a deeply constructivist view of nationalism and puts forth the idea that pre-existing and homogenous characteristics of a people group in no way define a nation; rather, it is the recognition of a bond, a fabrication and an artificed entity, that legitimizes the nation. Among the few universalist theories of nationalism one should mention the primordialist and the sociobiological perspectives. This colors his observations because the formation of southeast asian nations was, in large part, independent of racial or ethnic homogeneousness. N.p., n.d. Anthony D. Smith has produced a thorough and comprehensive survey of the diverse theories of nationalism against the background of debates about modernity. Agency of identity independent from the power of the main issues at the forefront of American politics modernity used... Great masses of people, and it is worth asking how Scottish nationalism was formed and are... Political philosophies of Imperial China great masses of people, and it is fundamentally... Ilk are referred to as using modernist or developmentalist approaches pre-existing, but it is imagined. Of American politics of American politics completely free a shifting phenomenon and the result of modernity, nationalism being key. 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